Research status of key technologies in plasma optics fabrication
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摘要:
等离子体加工技术是近年来发展起来的先进光学制造技术，具有快速缓解或去除传统光学加工方法导致的表面/亚表面损伤，以及高效、高精度和高分辨率修整光学面形的优势。从等离子体光学加工基本原理出发，基于等离子体激发频率与特征对发生器进行了简要叙述；进一步对各研究机构在等离子体加工技术涉及的射流特性、界面物化反应、损伤去除机理、去除函数、加工热效应和工艺定位等关键技术研究内容及成果进行分析，并对等离子体的新型光学加工技术进行介绍。随着研究的不断深入，构建多物理场和化学反应综合作用下的等离子体加工模型，揭示表面等离子体特性分布与去除函数的内在联系，从而建立准确的去除函数模型，是提高修形精度的发展方向，研究热效应控制方法和补偿策略在降低由热效应带来的修形误差方面起到了重要作用。
Abstract:The plasma processing technology is an advanced optics fabrication technology developed in recent years, which has the advantages of quickly mitigating or removing surface/subsurface damage caused by traditional optics fabrication methods, and trimming optical surfaces with high efficiency, high precision and high resolution. Starting from the basic principle of plasma optical processing, the generator was briefly introduced based on the excitation frequency and characteristics of the plasma. The research contents and achievements of key technologies such as jet characteristics, interface physicochemical reaction, damage removal mechanism, removal function, processing thermal effect and process positioning involved in plasma processing technology by various research institutions were analyzed, and the new optical processing technology of plasma was introduced. With the continuous deepening of research, a plasma processing model under the combined action of multi-physics field and chemical reactions was constructed to reveal the intrinsic relationship between the distribution of surface plasma characteristics and the removal function, so as to establish an accurate removal function model, which is the development direction of improving the modification accuracy. The research on thermal effect control methods and compensation strategies plays an important role in reducing the modification error caused by thermal effects.
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引言
MCP是将具有二次电子发射的单通道式电子倍增器采用矩阵排列、粘合、拉丝、切片等工艺制成的大面阵多像素电子倍增器件，像素数以百万计，具备对电子及其它粒子二维密度分布进行高鉴别率倍增成像功能，因此高增益是MCP的主要技术特色之一[1-2]。MCP增益主要取决于MCP端面电势差(即MCP电压)和MCP的输入电流密度(与阴极电压有关)，通过增加施加于MCP端面的电势差及通道电子的撞击能量，可以获得更多的二次电子，从而获得更大的增益[3]。MCP工作时通道壁内的电流是通道内壁发射二次电子产生的附加电流与传导电流的代数和，当MCP电压增加到一定值时，MCP处于脉冲工作状态，由于空间电荷效应，通道输出端产生大量空间电荷，所形成的电场完全抵消了工作电场，从而发射的二次电子得不到加速不能再产生二次电子倍增，就出现了脉冲工作的输出电流饱和现象；当阴极电压增加到一定值时，MCP的输入电流增大到一定程度会使传导电流减小，直至为零，从而这段通道上电压降变为零，场强也为零，因而没有足够的能量产生二次电子，出现输出电流密度的饱和现象[4-5]，可知并不是MCP电压与阴极电压值越大越好，而应寻求MCP的最佳工作电压。
应用于负电子亲和势光电阴极像增强器的MCP输入面需要镀一层防离子反馈膜，这层薄膜固然保护负电子亲和势光电阴极管的稳定性和可靠性，但俘获了来自光阴极的低能电子，且向后反射了部分电子[6]，这在一定程度上影响了防离子反馈MCP的增益值，使防离子反馈MCP产生了一定的阈值电压值(即电子穿透薄膜的能量阈值[7])。本文主要通过对无膜MCP及镀有不同厚度防离子反馈膜的MCP在不同阴极电压下、不同MCP电压下的增益的测试与分析，最终确定防离子反馈MCP的最佳工作电压。
1 MCP电流增益特性分析
MCP性能的优劣主要体现为MCP工作时电流增益值的大小，而这与MCP本身的通道电子倍增能力、MCP输入面防离子反馈膜的质量与厚度和MCP的工作电压都密切相关。工作状态下，MCP每个单通道的电流增益在每一瞬间并不是一个确定的数值，这是因为通道内的二次电子倍增过程具有随机性，每个电子所激发的二次电子数目并不相等，只能用平均值来表示二次电子倍增特性，二次电子数目的平均值又取决于入射电子的加速电压及入射角度，在通道多次电子倍增的过程中这些因素都是变化的，因此在每一瞬间MCP的电流增益是大量单通道电流增益的平均值。图 1为带MCP的光电倍增器的结构及电子输入通道情况，考虑进入MCP通道内的电子轨迹，电子运动的轨迹与通道轴相交，在它到达与它的发射点相对的通道壁时，其轴向运动距离为Z，Vc表示阴极电压，Vm表示MCP电压，Va表示阳极电压，d是通道直径，E是通道内电场强度。
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图 1 带MCP的光电倍增器的结构及电子输入通道情况Figure 1. Structure of photomultiplier tube with MCP and electronic input大多数实际使用的MCP，输入光电子的输入电位(即阴极电压Vc)相当大，大于160 V~200 V，这和最低跨越电位(即二次发射系数等于1的最小跨越电位，约为40 V~50 V)相比是相当大的，MCP增益方程式为
$$ \lg G \approx {k}\left( {n - 1} \right)\lg \left( {{V_{\rm{m}}}/{n}{V_{{\rm{ou}}}}} \right) + k\lg \left\{ {\left[ {\gamma {V_{\rm{c}}} \cdot {V_{{\rm{ou}}}}} \right]} \right\} $$ (1) 模拟MCP在像管中的工作状态，Vou一般为40 V~50 V，这里取50 V，γ取为65%，k为常数。对MCP施加Vc=400 V，Vm=500 V~1 200 V不等的电压值，测试MCP增益值，测试其增益值，最终绘制出lgG与lgVm的函数曲线图如下图所示。
由图 2可以看到，在板压Vm从500 V(lg500 =2.69)升到900V(lg900=2.95)时，板增益随电压的增加成比例增加，但当板压大于900V时，板增益增加缓慢，当板压增加到一定值时，MCP增益会达到自饱和状态。这种当MCP输入电流密度增大到一定程度后其输出电流不再随输入电流增加而增加的现象称为MCP的饱和效应，这一最大的输出电流密度称为MCP的饱和电流密度。
2 试验与分析
2.1 工作电压对无膜MCP电流增益影响分析
MCP是在光阴极将微弱光照射下的景物进行光电子转换后实现对电子的倍增，高增益是MCP的主要技术特色之一，其主要取决于MCP端面电势差(即MCP电压)和MCP的输入电流密度(与阴极电压有关)，通过增加施加于MCP端面的电势差及通道电子的撞击能量，可以获得更多的二次电子，从而获得更大的增益。图 3为无膜MCP增益随阴极电压Vc和MCP电压Vm变化曲线图。
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图 3 无膜MCP增益随工作电压变化曲线Figure 3. Curve of un-filmed MCP gain changing with working voltage由图 3可知，对于无膜MCP:MCP增益受阴极电压影响不大，当阴极电压大于一定值Vc1时，MCP增益几乎不变，这是由于当阴极电压增加到一定值时，MCP的输入电流增大到一定程度会使传导电流减小，直至为零，从而这段通道上电压降变为零，场强也为零，因而没有足够的能量产生二次电子，出现输出电流密度的饱和现象。这说明此时的阴极电压Vc1为无膜MCP的最佳工作电压。
对于无膜MCP，当MCP板电压为某一特定值Vm1(阴极电压为大于Vc1的任一值)时，MCP出现增益，但增益值很低，当MCP电压大于(Vm1+100 V)值时，MCP增益大于20 000，可认为板压为(Vm1+100 V)值为无膜MCP最佳工作电压。
2.2 工作电压对较薄膜(< 20Å)的防离子反馈MCP电流增益影响分析
应用在负电子亲和势光电阴极像增强器中的MCP输入面制备一层防离子反馈膜后，一部分低能电子不能进入MCP通道进行倍增，使防离子反馈MCP出现了阈值电压特性，即膜层阻挡电子的能量阈值[7]。而阴极电压和MCP电压在一定程度上的增大，可以实现进入MCP通道的电子增多，进而增益增大。图 4为较薄膜防离子反馈MCP增益随阴极电压Vc和MCP电压Vm变化曲线图。
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图 4 薄膜(< 20Å)防离子反馈MCP增益随工作电压变化曲线Figure 4. Curve of filmed MCP(< 20Å) gain changing with working voltag由图 4可知，对于较薄膜(< 20Å)防离子反馈MCP(阈值电压值约V阈值=300V)：当阴极电压Vc小于Vc1时，MCP几乎没有增益；当阴极电压Vc等于Vc1~Vc1+300 V时，MCP增益线性增加，Vc大于(Vc1+300 V)时，MCP增益有趋于饱和的趋势。由较薄膜(< 20Å)防离子反馈MCP的阈值电压值V阈值=300 V可知，当阴极与MCP之间的压差为Vc1与阈值电压值代数和时，MCP增益可达较大值。可知在阴极电压Vc=(Vc1+V阈值)时，较薄膜(< 20Å)防离子反馈MCP增益值较大。
对于较薄膜(< 20Å)防离子反馈MCP，当Vc=(Vc1+V阈值)、Vm=(Vm1+200 V)~(Vm1+700 V)时，MCP增益均进入线性工作区，且增益值明显较大，而Vm值的增大会导致MCP背景噪声的恶化[8]，因此Vm=(Vm1+200 V)、Vc=(Vc1+V阈值)为较薄膜(< 20Å)防离子反馈MCP的最佳工作电压。
2.3 工作电压对较厚膜(> 300Å)防离子反馈MCP电流增益影响分析
MCP输入面的防离子反馈膜是决定负电子亲和势光电阴极管稳定性和可靠性的主要因素，防离子反馈膜需满足高电子透过率和高离子阻挡率的双重要求，因此薄膜的厚度及膜层致密性非常重要。阈值电压值的大小可以作为膜厚的判据[9]，合格膜层越厚，其阈值电压值越大，具体数值决定于膜层的穿透电压和阴极至MCP间的电压[10]。下图为工作电压对较厚膜(大于300Å)防离子反馈MCP电流增益的影响。
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图 5 膜厚>300Å的防离子反馈MCP增益随工作电压变化曲线Figure 5. Curve of filmed MCP (> 300Å) gain changing with working voltage由图 5可知，对于较厚膜(> 300Å)防离子反馈MCP(阈值电压值约V阈值=400 V)：当阴极电压Vc小于Vc1时，MCP几乎没有增益；当阴极电压Vc等于Vc1~Vc1+400V时，MCP增益线性增加，Vc大于(Vc1+400 V)时，MCP增益有趋于饱和的趋势。由较厚膜(> 300Å)防离子反馈MCP的阈值电压值V阈值=400 V可知，当阴极与MCP之间的压差为Vc1与阈值电压值代数和时，MCP增益可达较大值。可知在阴极电压Vc=(Vc1+V阈值)时，较厚膜(> 300Å)防离子反馈MCP增益值较大。
对于较厚膜(> 300Å)防离子反馈MCP，当Vc=(Vc1+V阈值)、Vm=(Vm1+200 V)~(Vm1+700 V)时，MCP增益均进入线性工作区，且增益值明显较大，而Vm值的增大会导致MCP背景噪声的恶化，因此Vm=(Vm1+200 V)、Vc=(Vc1+V阈值)为较厚膜(> 300Å)防离子反馈MCP的最佳工作电压。
3 结论
不同厚度的防离子反馈膜对入射电子的阻挡能力不同，MCP的最佳工作电压需根据防离子反馈膜的阈值电压值来确定。对于负电子亲和势光电阴极像增强器用无膜MCP，其最佳工作电压：当阴极电压大于一定值Vc1时，MCP增益几乎不变，说明此时的阴极电压Vc1为无膜MCP的最佳工作电压；当MCP电压为某一特定值Vm1(阴极电压为大于Vc1的任一值)值时，MCP出现增益，但增益值很低，当MCP电压大于(Vm1+100V)值时，MCP增益较大(大于20000)，可认为板压(Vm1+100V)值为无膜MCP最佳工作板压；对于同种材料的带膜MCP，其最佳工作电压为阴极电压Vc=无膜MCP的最佳阴极电压Vc1与防离子反馈膜的阈值电压值的代数和，MCP电压Vm > (Vm1+100V)，具体值应根据防离子反馈MCP增益值的线性工作区来确定。
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图 3 等离子体加工关键技术主要研究内容
Figure 3. Main research contents of key technology of plasma processing
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图 5 CF4等离子体激发主要化学反应与成分
Figure 5. Diagram of dominant chemical reaction and constituents of CF4 plasma excitation
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图 8 氟基气体刻蚀SiO2表面反应化学机制
Figure 8. Schematic diagram of surface reaction chemical mechanism for SiO2 etching by fluorocarbon plasma
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图 9 等离子体加工去除表面/亚表面损伤过程示意图
Figure 9. Schematic diagram of plasma processing for removal of surface and subsurface damage
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图 10 射流冲击到元件表面特性分析和壁面热流分布
Figure 10. Analysis of jet impingement on surface of components and heat flux distribution on wall
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图 11 常规去函数与非线性时变去除函数对比
Figure 11. Comparison of conventional removal function and nonlinear time-varying removal function
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图 12 等离子体加工热效应建模的主要因素
Figure 12. Main factors for modeling of thermal effect of plasma processing
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图 13 等离子体辅助单晶金刚石抛光装置示意图
Figure 13. Schematic diagram of plasma-assisted monocrystal diamond polishing device
表 1 3种类型的等离子体发生器
Table 1 Three types of plasma generators
等离子体发
生器类型高功率型 紧凑型 微型 质量/kg 15 2 0.1 激发频率 2.45 GHz 2.45 GHz /
13.56 MHz2.45 GHz /
13.56 MHz最大功率/W 600 150 60 半高宽/mm 2～12 0.2～2 0.2～1 最大材料去除
率/ （mm3·min−1）30 1 0.1 加工目标 大口径元件
非球面化，损
伤层去除小型元件非
球面化，中
频误差修整温度敏感元
件加工，自由
曲面加工
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